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Summer 2003
At the Starting Line
Early Childhood Education
Programs in the 50 States
Darion
Griffin and Giselle Lundy-Ponce
High-quality early childhood education programs provide
young children with experiences that promote healthy cognitive and social
development and the basis for thriving in school. Families with economic
resources often purchase such education for their children--usually in the
form of high-quality preschool or daycare programs.
But for many families, including many middle-class families, the
high-quality preschool or daycare they desire is unaffordable or unavailable
without state subsidy or state efforts to assure quality. For low-income
children, such education is typically only available through Head Start
(which serves an estimated 50 to 60 percent of the nation’s poor 3- and
4-year-olds) or through state-funded programs that subsidize the otherwise
high cost of quality early education.
The AFT completed a 50-state study that reports on key elements of state
policies designed to ensure that all children, and especially those most at
risk, have full access to high-quality early education. In examining the
policies of state programs, we limited our analysis to early childhood
programs that (1) had school-readiness or early childhood education as a
goal; (2) were provided statewide; (3) were supported with state funds; and
(4) served 3- and/or 4-year-olds. For the purposes of this benchmark AFT
report, we included states that provide supplementary funds to Head Start
because this program fits the above criteria, but we did not include any
preschool programs that do not receive state funds.
* * *
Over the past 20 years, states have made strides in terms of
their attention to and provision of early childhood education. Two decades
ago, only about 10 states provided early childhood education programs;
today, 46 states and the District of Columbia provide funds for some type of
preschool program for children under age 5.
Nonetheless, the lack of quality early childhood education programs in the
United States is evident in the significant percentage of children starting
kindergarten without the necessary skills to do well in school. Too many of
these children lack critical preliminary skills such as knowledge of letters
and numbers, how to hold a book, or how to interact positively with their
peers and teachers. When unaddressed early on, these deficiencies contribute
to the achievement gap between advantaged and disadvantaged students--a gap
that has narrowed over time, but that still remains too wide. Without
opportunities to learn these skills at an early age, students from any
background can fall behind later in life. Too many students who come from
disadvantaged backgrounds have limited access to structured early childhood
programs and, therefore, have an even greater risk of falling behind.
Over the past 40 years, a significant number of studies have demonstrated
the important role the early years play in brain development, finding that
high-quality early childhood education increases the likelihood that all
children--particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds--will become
successful students and citizens. The Perry Preschool Study--one of the most
comprehensive and prominent longitudinal studies of the effects of early
childhood education--quantified the positive impact of high-quality early
childhood educational experiences on disadvantaged children’s success.
Program participants, who were tracked from age 3 or 4 to their late 20s,
experienced increases in cognitive skills, academic achievement, high school
graduation rates, postsecondary enrollment, and gainful employment when
compared to disadvantaged peers without access to early childhood education
(see Figure 1). Moreover, this study estimated a $7 public saving for each
dollar invested in high-quality preschool programs by minimizing costs
incurred by remedial and special education, school dropouts, social
disengagement, and future unemployment. Subsequent studies found similar
results. 1
High-quality programs provide children with stimulating learning
opportunities as well as secure and caring relationships with qualified
educators and caregivers. The programs also prepare children for school by
enhancing language skills and developing a better sense of group work and
play with other children. When compared to their peers who have not had
high-quality early childhood education, children who have gone through these
programs are more likely to develop secure relationships with adults, trust
figures of authority, follow directions, and effectively communicate their
needs. Young children are capable learners, and having these types of
educational experiences during their preschool years helps them learn at a
faster rate, become more capable readers and students, and develop socially
and emotionally.2
States’ growing commitment to early childhood education is made evident by
the increasing number of states that fund early childhood education
programs. State spending has grown from approximately $700 million in the
early 1990s to nearly $2 billion in 2000.3
The number of children served by state-funded early childhood education
programs has also increased. Ten years ago, 290,000 children participated in
state programs; today, that number has more than doubled.4
However, more work lies ahead in terms of getting all children ready for
school, achieving universal accessibility of early childhood programs, and
raising the quality of all programs.
Kindergarten teachers report that many children still come to school
unprepared, and research has shown that being unprepared jeopardizes
children’s chances to learn and succeed in school.5
In addition, more than 50 percent of U.S. children have one or more risk
factors for school failure,6
including too little exposure to stimulating language, reading,
storytelling, and other literacy-building activities upon which later
success in schooling is built. Children with these risk factors often have
trouble following directions, working independently or in groups,
communicating, and establishing secure relationships with adults. They also
have lower academic achievement: The math and reading scores of new
kindergartners from the lowest socioeconomic status (SES) quintile are 60
percent and 56 percent lower, respectively, than the scores of
kindergartners from the highest SES quintile.7
As Table 1(below) highlights, beginning kindergarten students from the lowest
socioeconomic status group are already behind their more affluent peers.
Children who have limited English proficiency, who are poor, who are
disabled, and whose parents have low literacy skills are the most likely to
be unprepared for school, have reading difficulties in the early grades, and
be at risk of falling behind in all subject areas down the road. Even when
kindergarten teachers do an excellent job helping low-income children who
are behind close the learning gap in basic skills, the more-advantaged
youngsters continue to have an edge, especially in higher-order skills,
reading, and mathematics knowledge.8
TABLE 1
Percentage of first-time kindergartners (by mother’s education)
who demonstrate proficiency in specific school readiness skills |
|
Readiness skill |
Children whose
mothers have less than a high school diploma |
Children whose
mothers have a bachelor's degree or higher |
|
Letter recognition |
38 |
86 |
|
Beginning sounds |
9 |
50 |
|
Numbers and shapes |
84 |
99 |
|
Relative size |
32 |
79 |
|
SOURCE: NCES,
2000b |
Judging State Policies
Using the findings and implications of early childhood research, the AFT
developed a set of initial criteria by which to judge the policies of
states’ early childhood education programs. We focused these criteria around
two dimensions--access and quality--and highlighted the most basic features
of universally accessible, high-quality early childhood programs as
identified by the research.9
For each criterion, we then developed a set of indicators around which
quality and accessibility rest.
A. Access Indicators
A universally accessible, early childhood education program should include:
Access to Preschool Programs
Research has shown that high-quality preschool programs for 3- and
4-year-olds help children become prepared for formal schooling.10
Research also indicates that these children are the largest segment of
children under age 5 who are in multiple-setting, nonparental care for most
of the day.11
Increased accessibility to high-quality early childhood education programs
for 3- and 4-year-olds would have a great and direct impact on school
readiness, minimize the disruptions that can result from placing children in
multiple nonparental care settings, and meet the needs of working families.
When the AFT judged state early childhood programs on this dimension, we
looked at: (1) how many 3- and 4-year- olds are served by the state’s
program(s), and (2) whether 3-year-olds (as well as 4-year-olds) are
eligible to participate in state program(s).
Enrollment Priority for Disadvantaged Children
An inclusive, noncompulsory, high-quality system of early childhood
education should ensure universal access and be publicly funded. Absent
universal access, children from disadvantaged backgrounds must be given
enrollment priority in early childhood education programs and provided
quality services at no cost to their families.
When we judged each state’s early childhood programs on this dimension, we
looked at enrollment priorities for: (1) low-income children, and (2)
children with other risk factors, including living with a single parent,
having parents with less than a high school education or who are unemployed,
being exposed to alcohol and drug abuse, lacking health insurance, having
limited English proficiency, having physical or learning disabilities, or
living with parents with low literacy skills.
Access to Kindergarten
Recent studies conducted by the Montgomery County School District in
Maryland and the Philadelphia School District provide new evidence that
children in full-day kindergarten make greater gains in early language and
literacy and have more sophisticated cognitive skills than children enrolled
in only half-day programs.12
Getting all children ready to begin the first grade--particularly children
from low-income backgrounds--is facilitated by extending kindergarten to a
full school day.
When we judged state early childhood education programs on this dimension,
we looked to see if the state: (1) funded half-day kindergarten; (2) funded
full-day kindergarten; and (3) required enrollment in either full- or
half-day kindergarten.
B. Quality Indicators
A state’s efforts at quality assurance in early childhood education should
include a focus on the following elements:
Staff Qualifications
The staff of a state-funded early childhood education program usually
includes teachers and early childhood workers. The teacher is the lead
educator put in charge of a classroom; early childhood workers assist the
teacher and can also be referred to as assistant teachers, teacher aides,
child or daycare workers, paraprofessionals, and associate preschool
teachers.
Poor or limited preservice training and/or professional development
compromise the quality of early childhood education programs. Research
repeatedly has found that high-quality programs showing positive outcomes in
children’s learning and cognitive development have staff with postsecondary
training.13
When we judged each state’s early childhood programs on this dimension, we
looked at whether the state required: (1) lead early childhood teachers to
have a bachelor’s degree in all settings, and (2) early childhood workers to
have a child development associate’s degree, an associate of arts degree, or
the equivalent in all settings.
Salaries
Programs should compensate teachers and other staff in early childhood
programs comparably to teachers in K-12 settings. Substandard pay
compromises the quality of early childhood programs.14
When the AFT judged each state’s early childhood programs on this dimension,
we asked about the average annual salaries of: (1) kindergarten teachers in
the state; (2) early childhood teachers in state-funded programs; and (3)
early childhood workers in state-funded programs.
Adult/Child Ratios
Small group size and low adult/child ratios enable children to interact
comfortably with their peers and get more individualized attention from
their teachers to help them develop language and problem-solving skills. The
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and other
early childhood experts recommend a ratio of no more than ten 3- and 4-year
olds for every one adult.
When we judged each state’s early childhood programs on this dimension, we
examined whether the state required one teacher or worker for every 10
children or fewer in all settings.
Program Accreditation and School Readiness Standards
State program monitoring should extend beyond compliance with health and
safety standards to include program quality. Having programs that are
regularly monitored for accreditation helps to ensure quality, continuous
improvement, and accountability for public funds. In particular, national
accreditation, such as that offered by the NAEYC, supports professionally
accepted levels of quality, coherence among programs, and widespread
high-quality practices.15
In addition, programs should have and use school readiness standards and
curricula that specifically address early language and literacy, early
numeracy, social-emotional competence, motor readiness, and physical
abilities. Children who are best prepared for the challenges of elementary
school have been exposed to extensive language and preliteracy experiences,
preliminary math and science, and a variety of age-appropriate classroom
activities that develop and enhance reasoning, communication, and
problem-solving. When early learning skills fail to develop during the
preschool years, risk for later school difficulties increases.16
When we judged each state’s early childhood programs on this dimension, we
looked at whether states’ policies required programs to: (1) be nationally
accredited; (2) have school readiness standards; and (3) use the school
readiness standards.
What We Found
Nearly every state provides funds for some type of preschool program for
children under the age of 5. While this is notable progress, the breadth of
these programs remains limited: States only provide state-funded programs to
approximately 12 percent of all 3- and 4-year-olds. What we have nationwide
can, at best, be described as a patchwork of early childhood education
programs and initiatives that vary widely in quality, administration,
funding, policies, providers, targeted communities, and other matters.
The following findings provide an overview of states’ provision of early
childhood education, as reflected by the criteria we identified:
-
Four states--Mississippi, Montana, South Dakota, and Utah--neither provide
a preschool program of their own nor do they supplement Head Start with
state funds.
-
Twenty-eight states provide preschool programs to at least some of their
3- and 4-year-olds. (Click here to view Table 2)
-
Twenty-one states give enrollment priority to low-income children and
children with other risk factors for all state-funded preschool programs. (Click
here to view Table 2)
-
Eight states and the District of Columbia require all early childhood
teachers to have a bachelor’s degree and all early childhood workers to
have at least a child development associate (CDA) credential or
equivalent.
-
Eight states pay lead teachers in state early childhood programs a salary
comparable to the state’s K-12 teachers. National averages, however,
reveal great disparities. While the average annual salary of kindergarten
teachers is $36,770, that of early childhood teachers is $19,610, and that
of early childhood workers is just $15,430.
-
Thirty states require a 1:10 adult/child ratio for all state-funded
preschool programs.
-
Fourteen states have school readiness standards and require state-funded
programs to use them. (Click here to view
Table 3)
-
Every state and the District of Columbia fund half- or full-day
kindergarten: Five states provide funds only for half-day kindergarten,
nine states and the District of Columbia provide funds only for full-day
kindergarten, and 36 states provide funds for both full- and half-day
kindergarten.
-
Ninety-three percent of U.S. children go to kindergarten; 13 states
require enrollment in kindergarten.
Based on this study, we recommend that states make preschool available to
all 3- and 4-year-olds (beginning with disadvantaged children) and raise the
overall quality of their programs. Critical steps for improving quality
include developing and requiring standards, increasing staff training and
compensation, and coordinating program administration.
No state has put together all of the components needed to ensure a coherent,
comprehensive, high-quality early childhood program for all children.
However, some states are well on their way to establishing high-quality
early childhood education systems. Other states can and should look to them
for guidance and help. States can also study the systems and approaches of
other high-achieving industrialized countries, where high-quality, universal
preschool is much more widely available than in the United States.
Content Matters
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Content matters in early childhood education. As was detailed in
American Educator ’s last
issue, poor children reach age 3 having heard 30 million fewer words
than their affluent counterparts. Since words represent knowledge, these
young children are likely to enter kindergarten with not only a language
deficit, but without the basic knowledge and concepts that underlie
school learning. Many have had little practice with certain preacademic
skills, few opportunities for creative play, and little socialization in
the ways of school. Early education must systematically and creatively,
and with due attention to children’s developmental needs and abilities,
introduce children to the knowledge they need. We offer here snippets
from three sources that have outlined and sequenced the knowledge
preschool children should be exposed to.
The first is a list of prereading skills identified in the National
Academy of Science’s Starting Out Right: A Guide to Promoting
Children’s Reading Success. The second is taken from one of the
month-by-month guides in the Core Knowledge Foundation’s preschool
sequence. The third is a portion of the "Discovering the World" goals
taken from the French national curriculum for the école maternelle,
France’s world-reknowned, publicly-funded preschool program that enrolls
(on a voluntary basis) virtually all of the nation’s 3- and 4-year-olds.
In each case, the content to be conveyed is clear; so is the need to
convey it in ways that are appropriate to the energetic, creative minds
of 3- and 4-year-olds.
--Editor
National Academy of Science
Recommended Prereading Accomplishments for 3- to 4-Year-Olds.
-
Knows that alphabet letters are a special category of visual graphics
that can be individually named.
-
Recognizes print in the local environment.
-
Knows that it is the print that is read in stories.
-
Understands that different text forms are used for different functions
of print (e.g., a list for groceries is different than the list on a
menu).
-
Pays attention to separable and repeating sounds in language (e.g., in
Peter, Peter, Pumpkin Eater: Peter Eater).
-
Uses new vocabulary and grammatical constructions in own speech.
-
Understands and follows oral directions.
-
Is sensitive to some sequences of events in stories.
-
Shows an interest in books and reading.
-
When being read a story, connects information and events to real-life
experiences.
-
Questions and comments demonstrate understanding of literal meaning of
story being told.
-
Displays reading and writing attempts, calling attention to self:
"Look at my story."
-
Can identify about 10 alphabet letters, especially those from own
name.
-
Writes (scribbles) message as part of playful activity.
-
May begin to attend to beginning or rhyming sounds in salient words.
Core Knowledge Foundation
Samples of the Suggested January Goals for 4-Year-Olds
Mathematical Reasoning
-
Continue a complex, 2-color pattern of objects as represented by a
pattern card.
-
Create and verbally describe a pattern of concrete objects.
-
Divide an object into approximately equal pieces for 2 people.
-
Name and match the numerals 1-6 with the corresponding quantities.
Orientation in Time and Space
-
Time: Use a yearlong timeline to mark events. [Engaged in all year.]
-
Time: Sequence and describe photos and/or drawings that represent a
timeline of one’s life and experiences.
-
Time: Sequence photos and/or drawings of a baby, school-age child,
young adult, elderly adult, and describe in terms of the progression
of the stages of development in the life of one person.
-
Space: Match halves of symmetrical objects to make wholes.
-
Space: Mark the location of specific objects, places on a simple map
of a familiar location.
-
Space: Jungle [other months include forest, mountain, island, etc.].
École Maternelle
Samples of the Preschool Curriculum
Discovering the world of objects
-
Using various technical objects in functional situations (life at
school, nutrition and cooking, internal and/or external communication,
games, building workshops, etc.).
-
Playing construction games.
-
Assembling objects and taking them apart.
-
Building objects: project involving the creation of an object, choices
of appropriate tools and materials for the task, specific technical
acts (folding, cutting, gluing, etc.).
Discovering the world of matter
-
Discovering some of the properties of natural materials (wood, earth,
stone, etc.).
-
Introducing the notion of air (wind, etc.).
-
Introducing the notion of water (liquid, rain, snow, ice).
-
Observing the effects of light (shadows).
Discovering live matter
-
Discovering one’s own body, both the entire body and body parts.
-
Observing some characteristics of life (birth, growth, development,
aging, and death).
-
Introducing some of the important functions of life (growth,
locomotion, nutrition, reproduction) by observing life in various
environments (in the classroom or during outings close-by: visit to a
pond, animal farm, etc.) or through audiovisual material.
Discovering natural and human-made spaces; sensitization to
environmental issues
-
Visually appraising shapes and dimensions.
-
Discovering, observing, and describing nature (plants, animals), the
immediate environment and less familiar spaces.
-
Learning practical activities such as gardening or caring for animals.
-
Identifying varied environments: countryside, sea, mountain, plain,
forest, stream, river, waterway, city, etc.
-
Observing human constructions: houses, businesses, roads, etc.
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Consciousness-raising about the importance of waste materials, etc.
-
Learning to identify sources of pollution: noise, odors, etc.
Sources:
The National Academy of Science’s Starting Out Right: A Guide to
Promoting Children’s Reading Success is available online at www.nap.edu/catalog/6014.html.
The Core Knowledge Foundation’s Preschool Sequence: Content and Skills
Guidelines for Preschool can be ordered (for $25 each) by calling
800/238-3233; more information on the sequence is available at
www.coreknowledge.org/CKproto2/Preschool/index.htm. The curriculum for
the école maternelle, Programmes de l’École Primaire Français: English
Translation (1996), is developed by France’s Ministry of Education. To
read more about the école maternelle in English, visit the
French-American Foundation’s Web site at www.frenchamerican.org/htm/popres.htm.
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Darion Griffin is associate director of the educational issues department
of the American Federation of Teachers, where Giselle Lundy-Ponce is
associate policy analyst. This article is excerpted from At the Starting
Line: Early Childhood Education Programs in the 50 states (available at
www.aft.org/edissues/downloads/EarlyChildhoodreport.pdf) and Early
Childhood Education: Building a Strong Foundation for the Future (available
at
www.aft.org/edissues/downloads/pb15earlychild.pdf).
Endnotes
1
In addition to the Perry Preschool Study, pivotal early childhood studies
include: the Abecedarian Project; the Chicago Longitudinal Study; and the
Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes Study.
2
NRC 1998; NRC 2000a; NRC 2000b.
3
Children’s Defense Fund, 2002; Schulman, et al., 1999.
4
Schulman, et al., 1999.
5
NCES, 2001.
6
Carnegie Task Force, 1994; NCES, 2001.
7
Lee and Burkam, 2002.
8
NCES, 2000a; NCES, 2001.
9
This report does not attempt to provide a comprehensive list of all desired
program features.
10
Lee and Burkam, 2002; NRC, 2000a; NCES 2000a.
11
The Urban Institute, 2000.
12
Nielsen and Cooper-Martin, 2002; Del Gaudio Weiss and Offenberg, 2002. These
data confirm findings from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES,
2000a).
13
NRC, 1998; NRC, 2000a.
14
In places where salaries are high, as in New York, there are larger numbers
of fully qualified teachers.
15
Gomby, et al., 1995; NAEYC, 1999; Education Week’s Quality Counts, 2002.
16
NRC, 2000a; NRC, 2000b.
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